Brazilian Air Force - Estimating the Real Cost of Modern Fighter Aircraft

F-18

GRIPEN NG

RAFALE


PORTUGUÊS ENGLISH

Estimando o Custo Real de Aeronave Caça Moderno

Este relatório é intencionado a fornecer uma base objetiva para estimar os custos verdadeiros de aeronave de combate pelos seus compradores domésticos, num tempo quando fabricantes, travados* em implacável crescente competição no mercado de exportação, rotineiramente inflacionam o custo de aeronaves competidoras enquanto fazem demonstrativamente reivindicações enganosas acerca de seu próprio produto.

* com dados guardados a sete chaves.

A meta não é acuradamente fixar preços reais de aeronave, mas fornecer estimativa geral e uma massa de dados e fontes que leitores possam usar para calcular seu próprio preço, dependendo de suas necessidades, pela estrutura dos elementos fornecidos neste estudo.

A média de Custo Unitário de Aquisição por Licitação de aeronave caça produzida na área da NATO [Organização do Tratado do Atlântico Norte] é de $112.43 milhões, e varia numa razão de quase 3 por 1 de $62.1 milhões para um Dassault Rafale C a $177.6 milhões para um Lockheed F-22A. Três aeronaves têm um Custo Unitário de Aquisição por Licitação em torno de $70 milhões, e outras três custam por volta de $110 milhões.

Quando os custos totais de pesquisa e desenvolvimento são acrescentados, entretanto, o quadro fica muito diferente, quando a média do Custo Unitário do Programa eleva-se para $148.7 milhões. Nesta base, somente duas aeronaves custam menos que $100 milhões, uma outra custa $112 milhões, e dois (Caça europeu e Rafale) custam em torno de $338.8 milhões.

Estes números podem parecer surpreendentes, especialmente quando eles indicam que o Rafale custa menos que o Gripen, ainda que eles reflitam o real preço pago por estes caças por *clientes domésticos. 

Opta-se desconsiderar outros preços, tais como aqueles oferecidos em competições de exportação, baseado no que eles são em grande quantidade pelas considerações comerciais, enquanto preços pagos pelo cliente doméstico mais acuradamente reflete o custo real de desenvolvimento e licitação de aeronave de combate.

*Clientes Domésticos, são aqueles dentro de um grupo de paises signatários de acordos multilaterais.

 Mais intrigante é a tentativa conclusão de que, preços de aeronave (ou custos para os governos), como daqueles outros produtos manufaturados, são determinados tanto pelo quanto o mercado pode suportar quanto pelo seus desenvolvimentos reais e custos de produção (veja Tabelas 2, 3).

A conclusão está na Tabela 4.

Aeronave de combate classificada pelos Custos Unitários de Produção

Aeronave classificada pelo custo por quilograma

custo unitário do programa dividido pele Peso Vazio

(Tabela 2 abaixo)

ENGLISH
AIRCRAFT COSTS BY PROGRAM

This section examines cost information available for each aircraft, lists the most recent cost estimates by source, and selects for each the most credible Program Unit Costs (total program cost divided by the number of production aircraft) and Unit Procurement Cost (value of latest production contract divided by the number of aircraft).

1 . Dassault Aviation RAFALE

Program Unit Cost : $ 135.8 million (Rafale C air force single-seat aircraft)

Unit Procurement Cost : $ 62.1 million

Manufacturer’s comment:

Dassault noted that prices quoted in French defense budget documents are inclusive of valueadded tax (VAT) at 19.6%. If *VAT, which is not applicable on export contracts, is excluded, the total cost of the Rafale program drops to 27.82 billion euros, and the average program unit cost is reduced to 94.63 million euros.
*V.A.T = A tax on the estimated market value added to a product or material at each stage of its manufacture or distribution, ultimately passed on to the consumer.

Again excluding VAT, the prices of the various versions are 47.3 million euros for the Rafale M, 41.5 million euros for the Rafale C and 43.3 million euros for the Rafale B.

These figures are all at January 2005 prices, Dassault says.

Cost data and sources:

- Total cost (R&D plus production) of the Rafale program was estimated in October 2005 by a French Parliamentary report at 33.27 billion euros for 294 aircraft (234 for the French air force and 60 Rafale Ms for the French navy. This implies an average program unit price of 113.17 million euros.

- Total program cost for the Rafale M naval program are estimated at 7.27 billion euros, or 121.4 million euros per aircraft. (2)

- Unit procurement costs were estimated by the French Parliament during the debate on the 2006 defense budget at 56.6 million euros for the naval Rafale M, 49.6 million euros for the single-seat and 51.8 million euros for the two-seat Rafale C air force versions (at January 2005 prices). (3)

- The most recent production contract, awarded in 2004, covers 59 Rafale F3 aircraft and was valued at 3.11 billion euros, or approximately 52.77 euros par aircraft. (1)

- The latest figures published in June 2006 by French MoD put the total cost of the program, including development, pre-production, production and integrated logistical support, at 33,273 million euros for 294 aircraft (including value-added tax, at 2003 prices).

Unit procurement prices vary between 45 million euros and 50 million euros (excluding VAT), depending on the versions.

Sources:

(1) Commission de la Défense Nationale et des Forces Armées, Rapport sur le Projet de loi de finances pour 2006 ; N° 2572, Tome VIII : Défense : Equipement des Forces, By Jerome Rivière; dated October 12, 2005, see page 11 et sq.
http://www.defense.gouv.fr/portal_repository/206537047__0001/fichier/getData
(2) Commission de la Défense Nationale et des Forces Armées, Rapport sur le Projet de loi de finances pour 2006 ; N° 2572, Tome V: Défense: Préparation des Forces: Marine By Philippe Vitel, dated October 12, 2005, see page 22
http://www.defense.gouv.fr/portal_repository/1536638127__0001/fichier/getData
(3) Commission des Finances, de l’Economie Générale et du Plan, Rapport sur le Projet de Loi de finances pour 2006 (n° 2540), By Gilles Carrez, Rapporteur Général ; See page 131 et sq.
http://www.defense.gouv.fr/portal_repository/1898695565__0001/fichier/getData

2. Saab-BAE Systems JAS-39 GRIPEN

Program Unit Cost : $ 76.07 million

Unit Procurement Cost: $ 68.90 million ($55.1 million excluding VAT)

Manufacturer’s comment:

Gripen International AB says “the fly-away cost of a Gripen in the market is between $35 million and $40 million.”

Background to cost data and sources:

- Gripen is now in advanced production, and the only available program cost estimates, including a 1996 Court of Audit report, are outdated, while the Swedish Parliament has not publicly debated the program’s cost for several years. Consequently, another approach was needed. This demonstrated the limits of Sweden’s much-vaunted transparency in government affairs.

Estimating Gripen costs:

(a) The Swedish defence material agency, FMV, says the total cost of the Gripen program between 1982 and 2009 is 99 billion Swedish krona (worth $ 13.54 billion at current exchange rates), including weapons and simulators but excluding Value-Added Tax, for 204 aircraft.

We converted this 99 billion krona figure to 2006 prices based on the 14% increase in Sweden’s Consumer Price Index between 1994, the program’s mid-point, and 2006. (CPI Index increased from 245 points in January 1994 to 279 points in January 2006, see Swedish Statistics agency, http://www.scb.se/templates/tableOrChart____33848.asp )

This brings the program’s estimated total cost to 112.8 billion krona at 2006 prices.

We then deducted the cost of simulators and weapons by applying a 20% discount to the 112.8 billion krona program cost, and added 25% value-added tax.

The resulting Program Unit Cost is $ 76.07 million per aircraft.

(b) Both FMV and the office of the Swedish Minister of Defence declined to provide the value of the latest Gripen production contract (awarded in June 1997), covering the 64 aircraft of Batch 3, claiming commercial confidence.

Consequently, we extrapolated Gripen’s Unit Acquisition Price from the Swedish offer to Poland (November 2002), which was made public at the time and remains the most recent price figure available.

This offer was worth 3,150 million euros ($ 3,780 million) for 48 aircraft, from which we deducted 30% for the cost of spare parts and support equipment, and added 25% value-added tax to bring it in line with our tax-inclusive benchmark.

The resulting estimate of Gripen’s Unit Procurement Cost is $68.9 million.

  3. Boeing F/A-18E SUPER HORNET

Program Unit Cost : $ 95.3 million

Unit Procurement Cost: $ 78.4 million

Manufacturer’s comment:

In response to our query, Boeing said that “the fly-away cost of the Super Hornet, under the current, second multi-year procurement contract with the U.S. Navy, is $53.8 million.”

Cost data and sources:

- Unit fly-away cost of the F-18E, as included in the US Navy FY07 budget request, is $78.4 million per aircraft. (4)

- In the latest DOD Selected Acquisition Reports (Dec. 31, 2005), the total program cost for the 462 planned F-18E Super Hornets is set at $44.03 billion, putting the Program Unit Cost at $95.3 million per aircraft. (5)

Sources:

(4) US Navy FY07 budget request, F-18E page
http://public.secnav.navy.mil/FY07.nsf/($reload)/8525711F000FDA09852570F200669A35/$FILE/145+FA-18EF.pdf
(5) SAR Program Acquisition Cost Summary (Dec. 31, 2005)
http://www.defenselink.mil/news/Apr2006/d20060407sars.pdf

FONTE: defense-aerospace.com

AA331 - Kingston Jamaica - Overran the end of the runway 12

AA331 - Kingston Jamaica

An hour before accident the wind speed reached 226 Km/h
(see graph below)



Offshore lights that guide pilots into Jamaica's main airport had been knocked out for more than a month when an American Airlines jet landed in driving rain and overshot the runway.
Lights leading to the other end of the runway were functioning, but wind conditions made that approach less desirable.
It had taken off from Miami International Airport at 8:52 p.m. And arrived in Kingston at 10:22 p.m.

KIN: Offset ILS DME (LLZ 120°, RWY 117°) 3° GS, DA 278, RWY Elev 8

Runway 12 Elevations - Landing end, 8. ARP (mid-runway) 10, far end 17.

Runway 12 wet, Braking Action is Good

GOOD: No degradation of braking action.


FAIR: Somewhat degraded braking conditions.

POOR: Very degraded braking conditions.

NIL: No braking action.

Aerodynamic, not disc, braking is more important when runway conditions have deteriorated enough to necessitate a braking action report. To use the aerodynamic braking action the engineers gave you, first fly at the correct approach speed. Then, once in the landing flare, hold the aircraft’s nose off the runway as long as possible to aid in aerodynamic braking. Finally, when the airplane has settled on the runway use the brakes sparingly – or not at all. This is not the time to slam on the brakes to make the first taxiway. Good rudder and aileron skills will also come in handy – the longitudinal axis of the airplane should be aligned with the runway centerline. This seems rudimentary until one wheel hits the ice first and causes a sudden jolt.

Remember, any braking action report implies that braking action is diminished – the only question pilots have to answer is “by how much?”.
These practices should keep you heading down the runway when braking action reports are GOOD or FAIR.

REILs not operating

Runway End Identifier Lights

REILs are installed at many airfields to provide rapid and positive identification of the approach end of a particular runway. They are effective for:
a. Identification of a runway surrounded by a preponderance of other lighting;
b. Identification of a runway which lacks contrast with surrounding terrain; and
c. Identification of a runway during reduced visibility.
These lights consist of a pair of synchronized flashing lights located on each side of the runway threshold facing the approach area. Both Runway 12 and Runway 30 have omni-directional REILs. The REIL system can be replaced with funding assistance from the JCAA to allow for improved pilot control. Pilots may adjust the intensity of the lights as they approach for landing by keying or “clicking” the aircraft’s microphone in accordance with the Pilot Control Lighting Operating Procedures.

"The only instrument approaches approaches at KIN are for runway 12 because the wind is usually easterly. An ILS was put in a couple of years ago on RWY 12. This ILS is offset requiring an adjustment by about 400 feet to align with the runway."

"If you wanted to land on RWY 30 and it was raining heavy it is unlikely you would be able to see to descend visually below the MSA which is about 9000' due to the mountains to the North.

Therefore to land on R/W 30 you would have to fly down the R/W 12 ILS to the circling minima of approximately 1000 feet. In heavy rain you may well not be visual. You would have to either goaround at that minima or fly a visual circuit and maintain visual contact with the runway. A visual circuit at 1000 feet in heavy rain in an airliner at night is not something a professional pilot would choose. Therefore it is far more preferable to choose the ILS with an acceptable tailwind."

BF

BF

METAR

Weather Underground

"Norman Manley International [airport] is a good place when the weather is okay, but it has an ILS approach that is offset 3 degrees to the runway. Doesn't sound like a lot, but when you break out of the clouds the runway isn't right in front of you like other ILS approaches. When you do touch down, the runway isn't grooved and standing water is a problem. Also, accumulated rubber from many prior landings make the touchdown area really slick. The controllers are notorious for calling the winds "calm" when they're really not so. Still, all in all it's not the worst airport we fly into. If you told me we'd have a runway overrun accident I'd have told you it would happen at Managua or Guatemala City. Both are worse than Kingston."

Pilot's Guide to Ground Icing by NASA

http://aircrafticing.grc.nasa.gov/courses_ground.html

Pilot's Guide to Ground Icing   (below are some scraps from the course)

Who should take this course?



Every pilot who could encounter ground icing - whether their aircraft needs to be cleaned or protected from frozen contamination.

What is covered in this course?


The problems caused by ground icing


When you are likely to encounter ground icing


The basics about aircraft de/anti-icing fluids


How to de-ice and anti-ice your aircraft


How long will it take?


That depends on you. This course is designed to let you determine what you need to know given the type of flying that you do. You can spend as litle as 60 minutes going through the highlights, but you can take much longer (2-3 hours) if you explore all related information and interactive features.

If the Airspeed Indicator reads ZERO during the takeoff roll, the PITOT tube is BLOCKED. If you do not REJECT the takeoff, but continue to climb-out, the Airspeed Indicator will appear to function shortly after takeoff, but will give you misleading information. If the STATIC ports are not blocked, the Indicated Airspeed will INCREASE with altitude, not AIRSPEED. As the airplane climbs, the Indicated Airspeed eventually exceed the actual airspeed.

Do not be tricked into increasing the pitch attitude and/or reducing thrust - these could cause a perfectly flying airplane to stall.

Videos

Airport hit by heavy snow click here to watch some Snow Removal Videos at airports

Happy New Year 2010

Pilots, Flight Attendants and Air Travellers Insomnia - Low MELATONIN level

Nova pesquisa descobriu como o cérebro pode comandar maior secreção de melatonina e você cair no sono rapidamente

Código Internacional de Doenças (CID)

G47.0 Disorders of initiating and maintaining sleep [insomnias]
G47.1 Disorders of excessive somnolence [hypersomnias]
G47.2 Disorders of the sleep-wake schedule
         Delayed sleep phase syndrome
         Irregular sleep-wake pattern



O que é MELATONINA?

Melatonina é um hormônio produzido pela glandula pineal, uma pequena gLândula no cérebro.

Seu corpo produz cerca de 0.1 mg de melatonina diariamente. doses de 10-50 mg são aparentemente usadas em tratamento de câncer. E um estudo alemão sugeriu que 30 mg de maltonina diariamente cpoderia agir como contraceptivo, portanto seja cuidadoso acerca de quanto você toma melatonina.

Melatonina ajuda controlar seu sono e ciclos de acordar. Muito pouca quantidade dela é encontrada em alimentos tais como carnes, grãos, frutas e vegetais. Você pode também comprá-la como um suplemento.

Seu corpo tem seu próprio relógio interno que controla seu ciclo natural de sono e horas de acordar. Em parte, seu relógio interno controla quanta melatonina seu corpo produz. Normalmente, os níveis de melatonina começam a subir ao cair da noite, permanece alto por boa parte da noite e então cai nas primeiras horas da manhã, antes do nascer-do-sol.

A luz afeta quanta melatonina seu corpo produz. Durante os dias mais curtos dos meses do inverno, seu corpo pode produzir melatonina mais cedo ou mais tarde do dia que o usual. Esta mudança pode conduzir ao simtomas da Doença de Afetação Sazonal. (SAD = Seasonal Affective Disorder), ou depressão de inverno.[Wehr T, et al. (2001). A circadian signal of change of season in patients with seasonal affective disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry, 58(12): 1108–1114.]

Os níveis naturais de melatonina lentamente caem com a idade. Alguns adultos idosos produzem muito pouca quantidade dela ou às vezes nenhuma quantidade ao todo.

Pilotos de avião, comissárias de voo bem como viajantes assíduos de linhas aéreas buscam socorro no suplemento de MELATONINA, a usando no tratamento de JET LAG (voo com cruzamento de vários fusos horários) ou problemas de sono (insônia).

Cientistas estão também observando outros bons usos da melatonina, tais como:

- Tratamento de Doença de Afetação Sazonal (SAD)

- Ajuda no controle de padrões de sono para pessoas que trabalhan em  turnos   de trabalho noturno

- Redução de dores de cabeça crônica

A melatonina está também sendo estudada para ver se ela pode ser usada no tratamento de problemas de sono em pessoas que são cegas [Melatonin (2004 July). Review of Natural Products. St. Louis: Wolters Kluwer Health.]

Uma vez que essas pessoas não podem ver luz, elas podem ter problemas de sono tais como dormir durante o dia e acordarem à noite.

Agora uma nova pesquisa descobriu um método de aliviar a insônia e cair no sono em menos de 2(dois) minutos.

Basta o nosso cérebro receber uma mensagem através de uma imagem bem notável de que a noite está chegando.

O método é simples.

Deite-se, feche os olhos imaginando esta foto.

Inspire pelo nariz profundamente, solte o ar pela boca lentamente.

Inspire profundamente outra vez, solte o ar lentamente.

O sono cai rapidamente logo após a terceira inspiração de ar.

O cérebro ao receber a informação de que a noite (através da imagem do por-do-sol) está chegando, "começa secretar quantidade maior de melatonina."

   
    Jericoacoara, CE, Brasil por George Rocha

 
"Nossas descobertas tem implicações para humanos", disse o lider autor Ilia Karatsoreos, PhD, da Universidade Rockefeller. "Em nossa sociedade moderna industrializada, a interrupção do nosso cíclo individual do rítmo de atividades diárias em 24 horas, em se tornado lugar comum, do turno de trabalho e JET LAG à presença constante de iluminação elétrica. Estas interrupções não são somente um aborrecimento, elas podem também conduzir a sérios problemas de segurança e saúde", disse ele.



"Um numero de doutores, inclusive eu mesmo, acreditamos que malatonina (em dose de 2.5 mg tomadas à noite) pode ser de ajuda significativa para algumas pessoas com disordens de sono, especialmente aquelas cujo ciclo normal de sono/acordar tem se tornado severamente distorcido no curso de suas doenças". [Dr. Charles Shepherd, "Living With ME", p78]

Polished Frost Takeoffs No More - effective February 1, 2010

FAR 135.227:

a) No pilot may take off an aircraft that has frost, snow, or ice adhering to any rotor blade, propeller, windshield, wing, stabilizing or control surface, to a powerplant installation, or to an airspeed, altimeter, rate of climb, or flight attitude instrument system, except under the following conditions:

(1) Takeoffs may be made with frost adhering to the wings, or stabilizing or control surfaces, if the frost has been polished to make it smooth.


(2) Takeoffs may be made with frost under the wing in the area of the fuel tanks if authorized by the administrator.

U.S. air safety regulators have decided, after almost 50 years, that it's no longer safe for private and cargo aircraft to fly with "polished frost'' on their wings.

Frozen Contaminants and their Causes

Federal Aviation Administration

14 CFR Parts 91, 125 and 135

SUMMARY: The FAA is removing certain provisions in its regulations that allow for operations with "polished frost'' (i.e., frost polished to make it smooth) on the wings and stabilizing and control surfaces of  aircraft. The rule is expected to increase safety by not allowing operations with ``polished frost,'' which the FAA has determined increases the risk of unsafe flight.

DATES: These amendments become effective February 1, 2010.

  Although polishing frost is currently permitted under part 91 subpart F, and parts 125 and 135, current FAA guidance developed subsequent to the implementation of those regulations cautions against this practice.

There are at least 12 \1\ known accidents in which individuals attempted to smooth or polish frost, but the aircraft failed to generate enough lift and crashed shortly after takeoff.\2\ The U.S.

National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) has urged operators to ensure that critical surfaces are free of contamination prior to take off.

The FAA has determined that an unsafe condition exists if all wing surfaces, other than those under the wing in the area of the fuel tanks,\3\ and other critical surfaces are not uniformly smooth upon takeoff and is therefore removing references to ``polished frost'' from the regulations. This final rule requires operators, when performing operations under part 91 subpart F, part 125, or part 135, to remove all frost from critical surfaces in order to achieve uncontaminated surface smoothness.

In the NPRM, the FAA identified four alternatives to polishing frost that operators may use to comply with this rule. Those alternatives are: (1) Using wing covers to prevent frost accumulation on wings, (2) waiting for frost to melt, (3) storing the aircraft in a heated hangar, or (4) deicing the wing surface. The FAA identified the use of wing covers to prevent frost accumulation on wing surfaces as the lowest-cost alternative for complying with this rule.

Summary of the Final Rule

This final rule removes language from part 91 subpart F, and parts 125 and 135, which permits aircraft to takeoff with frost that has been polished to make it smooth (``polished frost'') on critical surfaces.

Under the final rule, operators will be required to remove any frost adhering to critical surfaces prior to takeoff. Additionally, the rule restructures language in parts 91, 125, and 135 to clarify that aircraft must have functioning deicing or anti-icing equipment to fly under IFR into known or forecast light or moderate icing conditions, or under VFR into known light or moderate icing conditions.

Ice, snow, and frost are frozen contaminants, and they can form and accumulate on exterior aircraft surfaces on the ground. Weather causes this accumulation as do ground operational conditions conducive to icing. In either case, atmospheric conditions vary the type of accumulation, the amount, etc. Generally, icing conditions (during flight or ground operations) occur and ice protection systems or procedures should be activated when the outside air temperature (OAT) is below 50_F (10_C) and visible moisture is present or when there is standing water, ice, or snow on runways or taxiways.

Aircraft in flight experience a variety of atmospheric conditions which alone or together

can produce ice formations on the aircraft and its components. These conditions include:

• Supercooled clouds.

These are clouds containing water droplets that have remained in the liquid state even though the ambient temperature may be below 32F.
These droplets are very small (five to 100 microns), and they freeze on impact with another object. Water droplets have remained liquid even at temperatures as low as -40F.

The areas requiring special attention during a cold-weather preflight depend on the aircraft's design. FAR Part 135 and 125 certificate holders will identify these areas in the training program they are required to develop. Borrowing from what's required for that training program, general aviation pilots should pay particular attention to:

Wing leading edges, upper and lower surfaces

Vertical and horizontal stabilizing devices, leading edges, upper surfaces, lower surfaces, and side panels

Lift/drag devices (e.g., flaps)

Spoilers and speed brakes

All control surfaces and control balance bays

Propellers, spinners

Engine inlets, particle separators, and screens

Windshields and other windows necessary for visibility

Antennas

Fuselage

Exposed instrumentation devices, e.g., angle-of-attack vanes, pitot-static pressure probes, static ports

• Fuel tanks and fuel cap vents

Cooling and APU air intakes and exhausts

Landing gear If you know or suspect that the aircraft has been subjected to blowing snow, check any openings where snow can enter and freeze. In addition to and including the above, check:

Pitot tubes and static system sensing ports

Wheel wells/wheel pants

Heater intakes

Engine air intakes and carburetor intakes

Elevator and rudder controls

Fuel vents