sexta-feira, 12 de novembro de 2021

FLIGHT TO AIRPORT WITHOUT AIR TRAFFIC CONTROL - Surface safety - Downwind leg length - Runway obstructions

 





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Sources: 





Virginia Tech
Dr. A. A. Trani
Professor of Civil Engineering

Federal Aviation Regulations Part 77
Objects Affecting Navigable Airspace

California Airport Land Use Planning Handbook
Division of Aeronautics


ENGLISH

PORTUGUÊS

FLYING OVER MOUNTAINS - TRAFFIC PATTERN ALTITUDE

VOO SOBRE MONTANHAS - ALTITUDE DE TRÁFEGO AÉREO PADRÃO

 

 

The ridge elevation plus at least 1,000 feet. If the winds at mountain top level are above 20 knots, increase that to 2,000 feet. Plan to be at that altitude at least three miles before reaching the ridge and stay at that altitude until at least three miles past it. This clearance zone will give you a reasonable safety zone to avoid the most severe turbulence and down drafts in windy conditions.

 

A elevação do cume, mais, pelo menos 1.000 pés. Se os ventos no topo da montanha estiverem acima de 20 nós, aumente para 2.000 pés. Planeje estar nessa altitude pelo menos 3 milhas antes de chegar ao cume e fique nesta altitude até pelo menos 3 milhas depois dele. Esta zona de livramento lhe dará uma zona de segurança razoável para evitar a turbulência mais severa e corrente descendentes de ar em condições de vento.

 

FAR § 77.17 Obstruction standards.

 

FAR § 77.17 Normas de obstruções.

 

(a) An existing object, including a mobile object, is, and a future object would be an obstruction to air navigation if it is of greater height than any of the following heights or surfaces:

 

(a) Um objeto existente, incluindo um objeto móvel, é, e um objeto futuro seria uma obstrução à navegação aérea se ele tiver uma altura maior do que qualquer uma das seguintes alturas ou superfícies:

 

(1) A height of 499 feet AGL at the site of the object.

 

(1) Uma altura de 499 pés AGL [152 m] no local do objeto.

 

(2) A height that is 200 feet AGL, or above the established airport elevation, whichever is higher, within 3 nautical miles of the established reference point of an airport, excluding heliports, with its longest runway more than 3,200 feet in actual length, and that height increases in the proportion of 100 feet for each additional nautical mile from the airport up to a maximum of 499 feet.

 

(2) Uma altura de 200 pés AGL, [61 m] ou acima da estabelecida elevação do aeroporto , o que for maior, dentro de 3 milhas náuticas [5,5 Km] do estabelecido ponto de referência de um aeroporto, excluindo heliportos, com sua pista mais longa, mais de 3.200 pés [975 m] em comprimento real, e essa altura aumenta na proporção de 100 pés [30 m] para cada milha náutica [1852 m] adicional do aeroporto até um máximo de 499 pés [152].

 

(3) A height within a terminal obstacle clearance area, including an initial approach segment, a departure area, and a circling approach area, which would result in the vertical distance between any point on the object and an established minimum instrument flight altitude within that area or segment to be less than the required obstacle clearance.

 

(3) Uma altura dentro de uma área terminal de livramento de obstáculos, incluindo um segmento de aproximação inicial, uma área de partida e uma área de aproximação para circular, o que resultaria na distância vertical entre qualquer ponto do objeto e uma estabelecida altitude mínima de voo por instrumento dentro dessa área ou segmento a ser menor do que a requerida para livramento de obstáculos.

 

(4) A height within an en route obstacle clearance area, including turn and termination areas, of a Federal Airway or approved off-airway route, that would increase the minimum obstacle clearance altitude.

 

(4) Uma altura dentro de uma área em rota de livramento de obstáculos, incluindo áreas de curva e retorno, de uma rota  aérea federal ou uma rota fora de aerovia aprovada, que aumentaria a altitude mínima de livramento de obstáculos.

 




Enquanto a largura da RPZ é aproximadamente igual à largura da pista de pouso, a Zona Interior de Aproximação/Decolagem se estende ao longo das laterais da RPZ a partir do final da pista. (C) A Zona de Segurança 3, é chamada de Zona Interna de Curva. É uma área cônica sobre a qual as aeronaves curvam para/da Perna Base para a Perna de Aproximação Final do tráfego aéreo padrão. Antes de cada decolagem para aeroporto SEM CONTROLE DE TRÁFEGO AÉREO, é necessário calcular o comprimento da ITZ.




Descida

Quando você chegar pela primeira vez sobre um aeroporto em região montanhosa, dê uma boa olhada ao redor antes de descer para a altitude de tráfego e planeje sua pista de decolagem. Procure rotas de fuga e locais de pouso de emergência em caso de falha no motor logo após a decolagem. Além disso, estude o terreno que você terá que "escalar" quando decolar. Planeje sua trajetória de aproximação enquanto começa sua descida. Alguns aeroportos em região montanhosas estão confinados em vales que dificultam uma aproximação normal. Estude suas opções antes de se comprometer com uma altitude mais baixa.

 

Aproximação e Pouso

Aproximação e pouso devem ser normais na maioria dos aeroportos de região montanhosa. Planeje pilotar uma aproximação estabilizada para o ponto de touchdown desejado. Uma vez que os ventos orográficos às vezes açoitam severamente a aeronave, esteja ciente dos ventos.

 

 

Procedimentos de emergência

Mesmo os pilotos mais bem preparados podem um dia se encontrar presos em uma situação de emergência que exigirá raciocínio rápido e excelente habilidade para salvar a si mesmos e seus passageiros. Mesmo que essas situações não possam ser totalmente preparadas, existem algumas coisas que você pode fazer para aumentar suas chances de lidar com o problema da melhor maneira possível.

 

Onda orográfica

À medida que o vento sopra ar úmido, ele esfriará e poderá formar nuvens. Se, como é frequentemente no inverno, o ar estiver estável, as nuvens permanecerão perto da montanha, formando uma nuvem de "tampa". No entanto, se o ar estiver instável, como geralmente acontece no verão, este levantamento inicial será suficiente para iniciar a convecção e resultar na formação de tempestades.

 

 MÍNIMOS METEOROLÓGICOS

Teto de pelo menos 2.000 pés acima de todos os cumes e gargantas (espaço aéreo estreito entre duas colinas próximas) ao longo da trajetória do voo de aproximação. Isso ajudará a reduzir a exposição à turbulência orográfica mais perigosa na maioria dos casos. O mínimo do teto deve ser aumentado à medida que a velocidade do vento aumenta.

Visibilidade de pelo menos 16 km. Uma boa visibilidade, bem acima dos requisitos básicos de VFR, é necessária, uma vez que você geralmente estará usando pilotagem para navegar. O GPS é uma excelente ferramenta, mas há momentos em que escolher uma determinada garganta ou vale precisará ser feito visualmente. Boa visibilidade é a única maneira de ser capaz de fazer isso com segurança.












domingo, 5 de setembro de 2021

HARD LANDINGS - Helping pilots better handle the airplane during landing

 




SOURCE: NTSB and FAA

Advisory Circular 120-71 "Standard Operating Procedures for Flight Deck Crew Members" and Flight Standards Information Bulletins for Air Transport (FSATs) 00-08 and 00-12.

 

World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)

HARD LANDING REPORT BASED ON SINK RATE ALGORITHM


Issue: High sink rate awareness during landing.


Foresight bounce recognition and recovery


Hard or heavy landings are significant high load events that may adversely impact airframe structural integrity. Such landings may result in damage that affects the ability of the aircraft to fly safely. When this happens, repairs must be performed prior to flying the aircraft again.


The inspection process that is required to assess the potential for damage due to a suspected hard landing event is undesirably time consuming.


Studies showed that up to 90% of pilot-initiated hard landing inspections resulted in no finding of damage.


The results of performing unnecessary inspections include undesirably increased labor costs and lost revenues due to the down time of the aircraft.


Study case

Strong pitch up after the second hard touch-down and strong nose-down pitch forces.


Boeing defines hard landings that exceed 12.3 feet per second [fps] or that involve rapid derotation [lowering the nose wheel to the runway after the main gear touches down after the initial touchdown as severe.


  1. ·         Pilot monitoring for high sink rates.
  2. ·         Appropriate timing of the landing flare.
  3. ·         The flare is based on gross weight, temperature and pressure.
  4. ·         Airspeed trend vector is useful tool in determining when to begin to flare.
  5. ·         Aural altitude calls and the radar altimeter.


You don't want that accident investigation final report writes down "the cause of the accident it was the pilot-flying inability to arrest the high rate of descent existing at 50 feet [ft] radio altitude."


"SINK RATE" aural alert from EGPWS [Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System] it is your first and foremost calling for your attention.


The load factor provided by an air data inertial reference unit AD RU), which is not reliable due to the body-bending response in the fuselage at touchdown.


The ADIRU is located at the forward section of the fuselage and the load factor is mathematically translated to the airplane's center of gravity to determine the load factor value. Data analyses of actual landings from operators have shown that the load factor is an unreliable indicator of a hard landing event.


A false report of a hard landing can result in an unnecessary costly structural inspection and has the potential to delay dispatch of the airplane.


The indication of a hard landing as reported within an airplane condition monitoring function (ACIV1F) is based on data recorded from nose[1]mounted accelerometers, combined and recalculated to correct for the true location of the aircraft's center of gravity.


The sink rate algorithm comprises a second-order complementary filter


followed by a lag time noise reduction (i.e., smoothing) filter. The output main gear vertical sink rate takes into account the landing gear position with respect to the runway surface.


Activation of the sink rate computation occurs at some preset elevation (e.g., 200 feet) above ground level of the wheel carriage as determined by the radio or radar altimeter.


Monitoring continues until a predetermined time (e.g., 2 second) after the point of touchdown.


The sink rate algorithm disclosed herein has application for reporting hard


landings by aircraft of different types. The sink rate algorithm disclosed herein has been adapted for use with models 200 and 300 of the Boeing 777 aircraft.


The sink rate algorithm disclosed herein is based on a design that has been widely used in autopilots.



FIG. 1 shows the main components of a hard landing detection system in accordance with one embodiment of the invention. The ACMF 10 comprises a logic unit for performing the steps of a sink rate algorithm, such as the algorithm depicted in FIGS. 2A[1]2D. The sink rate algorithm outputs a main gear sink rate in response to the inputting of the following parameters: (1) radio altitude (in feet; + is up); (2) pitch attitude (in degrees; + is nose up); (3) body pitch rate (in deg/sec; + is nose up); (4) vertical speed (feet/min; + is up); and (5) vertical acceleration (g; + is up). The ACMF 10 receives radio altitude data from a radio altimeter 14, which is mounted on the airplane. The ACMF 10 receives data representing values of the other four parameters from an ADIRU 12. As will be explained in more detail later, the ACMF also receives data representing the current gross weight of the airplane from a flight management function (FMF) 16.


The sink rate output is smoothed with a quarter-second time constant lag filter to provide a clean, well-behaved estimate of the sink rate during flare and touchdown. This algorithm is currently being used within Flight Controls on the 777 because of its accuracy.


Using the vertical acceleration parameter to calculate sink rate has an advantage over using the vertical speed in that the vertical acceleration is not corrupted by ground effects as the airplane nears the ground.


Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS)


Mode 4 – Terrain Clearance Not Sufficient (while in landing configuration). Mode 4A and 4B are active during cruise and approach, and Mode 4C is active during go-around. Mode 4A triggers “Too Low Terrain, Too Low Gear” when the landing gear is up, Mode 4B triggers “Too Low Terrain, Too Low Flaps” with flaps not in landing configuration (but landing gear down) and Mode 4C triggers with flaps not in landing configuration OR gear up: “Too Low Terrain”.


Mode 5 – Excessive Descent Below Glide Slope – triggered when the aircraft descends below the glideslope and the aural alert “Glideslope” is triggered.


Note: the above warnings, cautions and callouts differ depending on the aircraft type (and can even differ on the same type of aircraft when different systems are installed).


Enhanced GPWS

Enhanced GPWS (EGPWS) supplements Basic GPWS with a database of terrain and airports, and correlates this with the known position of the aircraft.

EGPWS (or “Predictive GPWS”) has a computer model of the aircraft performance and uses this to create a caution and warning envelope in front of the aircraft, including the ability of the aircraft to climb.

When the Predictive GPWS is operating normally the Basic GPWS Mode 2 (Excessive Terrain Closure Rate) is inhibited. If a failure is detected in the Predictive GPWS, or there is a significant discrepancy between detected rad alt height and the T2CAS altitude, Basic Mode 2 is re-enabled.


On Basic GPWS

Mode 2 – Excessive Terrain Closure Rate: Mode 2 takes into account gear and flap configuration. There are two types of Mode 2 alerts: Mode 2A (active during climb, cruise and initial approach) and Mode 2B (active during approach and 60 secs after takeoff). With landing gear up the warnings are “Terrain”, “Terrain Terrain” and “Pull Up”. With landing gear down, the “Terrain” caution is triggered.

Airbus A320/A330/A340 Predictive GPWS – Warnings and Cautions

The Airbus A320/330/340 aircraft utilize a Terrain Awareness Display (TAD) function which develops a caution and warning envelope in front of the aircraft. The TAD takes into consideration the aircraft’s altitude, nearby runways and the altitude of the runway, together with the aircraft’s speed and turn radius.

When the system detects a threat in the projected envelope it will trigger the relevant GPWS caution and warning callouts (aural alerts).


Adam B733 at Surabaya on Feb 21st 2007, hard landing.

Adam Air Boeing 737-300, registration PK-KKV performing flight KI-172 from Jakarta to Surabaya (Indonesia) with 148 passengers and 7 crew, was approaching Surabaya's runway 28 in thunderstorm rain, visibility 8000 meters. When the aircraft descended through 200 feet AGL the captain called the aircraft was too high and took control, subsequently the Ground Proximity System issued alerts "Pull Up!" and "Sink Rate!" The right hand main gear touched down outside the runway, about 4 meters off the right edge of the runway. The captain steered the aircraft back to the center line of the runway and brought it to a stop about 100 meters short of taxiway N3. Two passengers received minor injuries (backbone pain), the aircraft received substantial damage including a fractured/bent fuselage.







sexta-feira, 6 de agosto de 2021

SHARING OF PILOT RECORDS AMONG PILOT EMPLOYERS – YOU’LL BE UNDER CONTROL

 


SOURCE: FAA AC No: 120-68J, Pilot Records Database and Pilot Records Improvement Act

Air carriers must begin using the PRD for FAA record evaluations no later than Dec. 7, 2021, and for all other records no later than June 10, 2022. Air carriers must upload historical records starting on June 12, 2023 and no later than Sept. 9, 2024, with the compliance date dependent on the age of the individual historical record.  Until Sept. 9, 2024, it may be necessary to obtain and review pre-hire records using both PRIA and PRD processes. 

3.3 PRIA Background. On October 9, 1996, the President approved the Federal Aviation Reauthorization Act of 1996 (the Act). The Act amended 49 U.S.C. to reauthorize programs of the FAA and to effect certain changes, including pilot records. The law is commonly referred to as PRIA and is contained in Section 502 of Public Law (PL) 104-264, Federal Aviation Reauthorization Act of 1996. PRIA was enacted primarily as a result of certain accidents attributable to pilot error. In some of those cases, the subsequent employer found that the pilots had previous histories of poor performance, but the background of these pilots had not been checked. PRIA was amended to make clarifications and relieve air carriers of unnecessary burdens. These amendments to PRIA are in 49 U.S.C. § 44703(h), (i), and (j).

3.3.2 Pilot Records Database (PRD). The Airline Safety and Federal Aviation Administration Extension Act of 2010 (the Act) amended PRIA and required the FAA to create the PRD. The PRD is required to contain pilot records dating from August 1, 2005 for FAA certification events, enforcement records, pilot employment history, training data, and 6/28/21 AC 120-68J 3-2 drug and alcohol testing records. Once the transition period is complete, the PRD will replace PRIA. Until full implementation of the PRD, PRIA remains in effect. Therefore, air carriers and other operators who employ pilots must continue to provide pilot records to an air carrier or air operator seeking information on an individual pilot in accordance with PRIA. PRIA requires air carriers to evaluate all available pilot records prior to making a hiring decision. See paragraph 2.10 for information about how the PRD can be used to comply with portions of PRIA.

3.4.2 Determining Whether PRIA Applies to You When Hiring a Pilot.

Checklist to determine whether PRIA requires you to request records for a pilot.

3.4.2.1 Are you an air carrier or operator conducting operations in accordance with 14 CFR part 91 subpart K (part 91K), 121, 125, or 135?

3.4.2.2 Do you engage in air transportation, as defined in 49 U.S.C. § 40102(a)(5)?

You engage in air transportation if you provide:

6/28/21 AC 120-68J

• Foreign air transportation (flag operation),

• Air transportation on an interstate basis, or

• Transportation of U.S. mail.

Note: Notwithstanding the above comments, all operators should consider voluntarily requesting PRIA records and any other records that may be available.

[…]

3.5 Company Records vs. PRIA Records. Pilot employers typically maintain records that exceed the scope of records to which PRIA applies. Such records are referred to as “company records,” whereas the records maintained and provided by operators in accordance with PRIA are referred to as “PRIA records.” The difference between the record types can easily create confusion among those involved during review.

3.5.1 Company records are events or actions memorialized by an air carrier or operator to document compliance with a statute or regulation or those maintained through a company’s own initiative. These records typically consist of documented training and qualification events, performance, and employment-related activities during the period

6/28/21 AC 120-68J

that an individual is employed by a company as a pilot. Many company records exceed the scope of PRIA.

3.5.2 PRIA records are a collection of company records memorialized by a current or former employer during the previous 5 years from the date of the request that meet the policy outlined in this AC and the requirements of 49 U.S.C. § 44703(h). These records are used to assist an air carrier or operator in making a hiring determination. PRIA records are not forwarded from a receiving air carrier to another requesting air carrier through a future PRIA records request.

3.5.3 When a pilot is seeking employment with an employer that is required to review records in accordance with PRIA, the employer will request records from the pilot’s current and/or previous employers. The previous employers will then assemble copies of the appropriate records for the past 5 years.

3.5.4 Once the company records have been assembled by the current and/or former employers of the pilot applicant, at that point, that subset of company records become PRIA records.

3.5.5 Those PRIA records will be archived and maintained completely separate from the hiring air carrier or operator’s company records. PRIA records received through a PRIA records request should never be actively used again, other than for inspection and review by that company’s Principal Operations Inspector (POI).

3.5.6 PRIA records received as a result of a PRIA records request should never be included in an employer’s own company records when that employer receives a subsequent PRIA records request. The company holding the PRIA records must respond to a PRIA records request only from their company records and never forward another company’s PRIA records as part of the records sharing process.

[…]

3.6.1 Initiation. The hiring employer initiates the process.

3.6.2 PRIA Records Request. Both the pilot-applicant and the hiring employer complete the PRIA records request forms.

3.6.3 Employer. The hiring employer sends the request forms to the:

• FAA,

• National Driver Register (NDR), and

• Current and previous employers.

3.6.4 Response. Respondents answer the PRIA records requests.

3.6.5 Review. All pilots/applicants may review records submitted about them to the FAA, NDR, and current and previous employers.

3.6.6 Evaluation. The hiring employer reviews and evaluates the results.

3.6.7 Records Maintenance. The hiring employer maintains all PRIA-related records.

[…]

3.9 Information for the Pilot-Applicant.

3.9.1 Pilot-Applicant’s Tasks During PRIA Records Request Process. If you are an individual who is applying for a job as a pilot, your hiring employer will initiate the PRIA records request process. Per 49 U.S.C. § 44703(h)(5) and (6), the hiring employer must first notify you in writing that it will request records about you and obtain your written consent by signature.

3.9.1.1 Complete PRIA Records Request Forms.

3.9.1.1.1 The hiring employer or a DA will provide several forms to request

PRIA-related records from the previous 5 years only. You will complete and

sign these forms to grant your consent for the FAA, your previous

employer(s), and the NDR to release your records.

3.9.1.1.2 The Aviation Data Systems Branch will provide information concerning your current airman medical certificate. It will also give information on your current airman certificates indicating level, category, class, and associated type ratings, including any limitations to those certificates and ratings. From the previous 5-year period, the FAA will also summarize any closed legal enforcement actions against you that resulted in findings of violations that were not subsequently overturned. However, the FAA will report any formal

6/28/21 AC 120-68J

closed certificate actions on file, such as suspensions, civil penalties, or

revocations indefinitely.

3.9.1.1.3 The hiring employer will ask your previous employer(s) to provide records pertaining to you, except for those related to flight time, duty time, or rest time. A previous employer will provide records on your performance as a pilot concerning your training, qualifications, proficiency, and professional competence, including any comments or evaluations by check airmen; any disciplinary actions that the previous employer did not overturn; and any release from employment or resignation, termination, or disqualification from employment. Additionally, under PRIA, your former Department of Transportation (DOT)-regulated employer(s) will provide records of drug and alcohol tests performed under 49 CFR part 40, even if the employers were not aviation entities.

3.9.1.1.4 If this is your first job as a pilot, but you were previously subject to DOT-regulated drug and alcohol testing, your hiring employer must request your drug and alcohol test results from your previous employer(s) in accordance with 49 CFR part 40.

3.9.1.1.5 The NDR will furnish your applicable motor vehicle driving records.